USE SOFT WORD AND HARD ARGUMENTS

In everyday life, people often use "argument" to mean a quarrel between people. But in logic and critical thinking, an argument is a list of statements, one of which is the conclusion and the others are the premises or assumptions of the argument. In logic, we often talk about the logical properties of statements and how one statement is related to another.

So what is a statement?

There are three main sentence types in English:

• Declarative sentences are used for assertions, e.g. "He is here."
• Interrogative sentences are used to ask questions, e.g. "Is he here?"
• Imperative sentences are used for making requests or issuing commands, e.g. "Come here!"

Statements can be true or false, and they can be simple or complex. But they must be grammatical and complete sentences.

So what is an argument?

To give an argument is to provide a set of premises as reasons for accepting the conclusion. To give an argument is not necessarily to attack or criticize someone. Arguments can also be used to support other people's viewpoints.

Here is an example of an argument: If you want to find a good job, you should work hard. You do want to find a good job. So you should work hard.

The first two sentences here are the premises of the argument, and the last sentence is the conclusion. To give this argument is to offer the premises as reasons for accepting the conclusion.

How do we identify arguments in real life?

There are no easy mechanical rules, and we usually have to rely on the context in order to determine which are the premises and the conclusions.

Soundness

The validity is about the logical connection between the premises and the conclusion. When we are told that an argument is valid, this is not enough to tell us anything about the actual truth or falsity of the premises or the conclusion. All we know is that there is a logical connection between them, that the premises entail the conclusion.

So even if we are given a valid argument, we still need to be careful before accepting the conclusion, since a valid argument might contain a false conclusion. What we need to check further is of course whether the premises are true. If an argument is valid, and all the premises are true, then it is called a sound argument.

In a valid argument, if the premises are true, then the conclusion cannot be false, since by definition it is impossible for a valid argument to have true premises and a false conclusion in the same situation. So given that a sound argument is valid and has true premises, its conclusion must also be true. So if we have determined that an argument is indeed sound, we can certainly accept the conclusion.

An argument that is not sound is an unsound argument. If an argument is unsound, it might be that it is invalid, or maybe it has at least one false premise or both.

What is a good argument?

A good argument is an argument that is either valid or strong, and with plausible premises that are true, do not beg the question, and are relevant to the conclusion.

Use soft words and hard argument

Arguments help to able to convince other people, point out their mistakes, and change their minds. So when we disagree, it is important to explain our reasons very clearly.

We also ought to remember that when people disagree with each other, things can get emotional and hostile. It is important to remain calm to find out who is right and who is wrong. It is of course quite possible for us to discover that we ourselves have made a mistake. How to conduct a constructive dialogue is an art that requires not just an understanding of logic, but also empathy, self-control, and a good grasp of human psychology.

"A serious argument depends on mutual respect, and this is often hard to engender when disagreements turn vehement. The social psychologist and game theorist Anatol Rapoport once promulgated a list of rules for how to write a successful critical commentary on an opponent’s work.

First, he said, you must attempt to re-express your opponent’s position so clearly, vividly, and fairly that your opponent says “Thanks, I wish I’d thought of putting it that way.”

Then, you should list any points of agreement (especially if they are not matters of general or widespread agreement), and

Philosopher Daniel Dennett

Third, you should mention anything you have learned from your opponent.

Only then are you permitted to say so much as a word of rebuttal or criticism."